Jo Ann Arinder
Feminist theoryfalls under the umbrella ofcriticaltheory,which in generalhavethe purpose of destabilizing systems of power and oppression.Feminist theory will be discussed here as a theory with a lower case ‘t’, however this is not meant to imply that it is not a Theory or cannot be used as one, only to acknowledge that for some it may be a sub-genre of Critical Theory, while for others it stands alone.According to Egbert and Sanden (2020), some scholars see criticalparadigmsas extensions of the interpretivist, butthere isalsoan emphasis on oppression and lived experience grounded in subjectivist epistemology.
The purpose of usingafeminist lensis toenable the discovery of how people interact within systems and possibly offer solutions to confront and eradicate oppressive systems and structures. Feminist theory considers the lived experience of any person/people, not just women,with an emphasis on oppression. While there may not be a consensus on where feminist theoryfits as a theory or paradigm, disruption of oppressionis a core tenant of feminist work.As hooks(2000) states, “Simply put, feminism is a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation and oppression. I liked this definition because it does not imply that men were the enemy”(p.viii).
Marxism and socialism are key components in the heritage.of feminist theory.The originsof feminist theorycan be found in the 18th centurywith growth in the 1970s’ and 1980s’ equality movements.According to Burton (2014), feminist theory has its roots in Marxism but specifically looks toEngles’ (1884) work as one possible starting point.Burton (2014) notes that, “Origin of the Family and commentaries on it were central texts to the feminist movement in its early years because of the felt need to understand the origins and subsequent development of the subordination of the female sex” (p. 2).Work in feminist theory, including research regarding gender equality, is ongoing.
Gender equality continues to be an issue today, and research into gender equality in educationis still moving feminist theory forward. For example,Pinco*ck’s(2017)studydiscusses the impact of repressive norms on the education of girls in Tanzania. The author states that, “…considerations of what empowerment looks like in relation to one’s sexuality areparticularly important in relation to schooling for teenage girls as a route to expanding theiragency” (p.909).This consideration can be extended to any oppressed group within an educational setting and is not an area of inquiry relegated to the oppression of only female students.For example, non-binary students face oppression within educational systems and even male students can face barriers, and students areoftenstill led towards what are considered“gender appropriate”studies. This creates a system of oppression that requires active work to disrupt.
Looking at representation in the literature used in education is another areaof inquiryin feminist research.For example, Earles(2017)focused onphysical educational settings toexplorerelationships“between gendered literary characters and stories and the normative and marginal responses produced by children”(p.369).In this research,Earlesfound evidence to supportthatacontradictionbetween theliterature andchildren’slived experiencesexists. The author suggests that educators can help tocontinue the reduction ofoppressive gender norms through carefulselectionofliterature andspaces to allow learners opportunities forappropriate discussionsabout these inconsistencies.
In another study,Mackie(1999)exploredincorporating feministtheoryintoevaluation research.Mackie was evaluating curriculum created for English language learnersthatrecognizedthe dual realities of some students, also known astheintersectionality of identity,and concludedthat this recognition empoweredstudents.Mackie noted that valuingexperienceand identitycreated a potential for change on an individual and community leveland“Feminist and other types of critical teaching and research provide needed balance to TESL and applied linguistics”(p.571).Further, BieremaandCseh(2003)used a feminist research frameworktoexamine previously ignoredstructural inequalities thataffectthe lives of women working in the fieldof human resources.
Figure 1 presents a model of feminist theory that begins with the belief that systems exist that oppress and work against individuals. The model then shows that oppression is based on intersecting identities that can create discrimination and exclusion. The model indicates the idea that, through knowledge and action, oppressive systems can be disrupted to support change and understanding.
Concepts
The core concepts in feminist theory are sex, gender, race, discrimination, equality, difference, and choice.There are systems and structures in place that work against individuals based onthese qualitiesand against equalityand equity. Research in critical paradigms requires the belief that,through the exploration of these existing conditions in the current social order,truths can be revealed. More important, however, this exploration can simultaneously build awareness of oppressive systems and create spaces for diverse voices to speak for themselves (Egbert & Sanden, 2019).
Constructs
Feminism isconcerned withthe constructs of intersectionality, dimensions of social life, socialinequality,and social transformation.Through feminist research, lasting contributions have been made to understanding the complexities and changes in the gendered division of labor.Men and women should be politically,economically,and sociallyequal andthis theory does not subscribe to differencesor similaritiesbetween men, nor does it refer to excluding men or only furthering women’s causes.Feminist theoryworksto support change and understanding through acknowledging and disrupting power and oppression.
Proposition
Feminist theory proposes that when power and oppression areacknowledgedand disrupted, understanding, advocacy, and change can occur.
There are manypotentialways to utilizethis model in research and practice.First,teachers and students canconsider what systems of power exist intheirclassroom, school, or district.They can question how these systems are working to create discrimination and exclusion.By considering existing social structures, they can acknowledge barriers and issues inherit to the system.Once these issues are acknowledged, they can be disrupted so that change and understanding canbegin. Thismaymanifest, for example,asconsidering how past colonialism has oppressed learners of English as a second or foreign language.
The use of feminist theoryin the classroomcan ensure thattheclassroom is created, in advance, to consider barriers to learningfaced bylearnersdue tosex, gender, difference, race,orability. Thiscanhelp toreduce oppression created bysystemic issues. In the case of the English language classroom,learners may be facing oppression based on theirnative language or country of origin. Facing these barriers in and out of the classroom can affect learners’ access to education.Consideringthese barriers in planning and includingefforts to mitigate the issues and barriers faced by learners is a use offeminist theory.
Feminist research isinterestedin disrupting systems of oppression or barriers created from these systemswith a goal of creating change.Allresearchcan include feminist theory when theresearch adds to efforts to work against and advocate to eliminate the power and oppression that exists within systems or structuresthat, in particular, oppresswomen.An examination of educationin general could be useful since education is a field typically dominated by women; however, women are not often in leadership roles in the field. In the same way, using feminist theory for an examination into the lack of people of color and male teachers represented in education might also be useful.Action researchis another area that can use feminist theory. Action research is often conducted in the pursuit of establishing changes that are discovered during a project. Feminism and action research are both concerned withcreatingchange,which makes thema natural pairing.
Pre-existing beliefs about what feminism means can make including it inclassroompractice or research challenging. Understanding that feminism is about reducing oppression for everyone and sharing that definition can reduce this challenge. hooks(2000)said that,“A male who has divested of male privilege, who has embraced feminist politics, is a worthy comrade in struggle, in no way a threat to feminism, whereas a female who remains wedded to sexist thinking and behavior infiltrating feminist movement is a dangerous threat”(p. 12). As Angela Davis noted during a speech at Western Washington University in 2017, “Everything is a feminist issue.” Feminist theoryis about questioning existing structures and whether they are creating barriers for anyone. An interest in the reduction of barriers is feminist.Anyone can believe in the need to eliminate oppression and workas teachers or researchers toactively to disrupt systems of oppression.
Bierema, L. L., &Cseh, M. (2003). Evaluating AHRD research using a feminist researchframework. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 14(1), 5–26.
Burton, C. (2014). Subordination: Feminism and social theory. Routledge.
Earles, J. (2017). Reading gender: A feminist, queer approach to children’s literature andchildren’s discursive agency.Gender and Education, 29(3), 369–388.
Egbert, J., & Sanden, S. (2019). Foundations of education research:Understandingtheoretical components. Taylor & Francis.
Hooks,B. (2000). Feminism is for everybody: Passionate politics.South End Press.
Mackie, A. (1999). Possibilities forfeminism in ESLeducation andresearch.TESOLQuarterly, 33(3), 566-573.
Pinco*ck, K. (2018). School,sexualityand problematic girlhoods:Reframing ‘empowerment’discourse. Third World Quarterly, 39(5), 906-919.
